Since the early years
of the Christian era, Christians have been called by Christ Himself to
life in the world without being of the world (John 17:13-16).
They are distinct from the world, because of their special conduct and
their exemplary ethical life. When, toward the middle of the second
century of the Christian era, Christian life reached a low ebb, some
Christians, both men and women, reacted to this by raising their own
personal standards of austere Christian life. They practiced chastity,
celibacy, poverty, prayer and fasting.
These people considered
themselves Christians selected to live the life of angels (Matthew
22:30). They lived by themselves or in special houses as a community. At
about the middle of the third century, they began fleeing the world and
going to the desert, where they established permanent habitations,
whether by themselves or in small groups. They are known as the "anchorites" (from anachoresis: departure, flight); the hermits
(from eremos: desert); and the monastics (from monos:
alone, for a monastic "lives in the presence of God alone").
A good example of an
anchorite monk is
Saint Anthony the Great, who fled the world [c. 285]
and established himself in the desert of Middle Egypt. Many people
imitated his example; they went and lived close to him, thus "populating
the desert" (Troparion of Saint Anthony). These monks lived by
themselves in huts and small houses to form a village called "lavra"
(later the concept of "lavra" develops, as we will see).
Saint Anthony is
considered the Father of Orthodox monasticism, for his kind of
monasticism, that of "living alone with God as his only companion"
remained the most cherished monastic ideal for the monks of the Eastern
Orthodox Church throughout the ages.
The establishment of
Christianity as a legal religion of the roman Empire by Constantine the
Great, with the edict of Milan (313), led to a new decline in the
ethical life of Christians. In reaction to this decline, many refused to
accept any compromises and fled the world to become monastics.
Monasticism thrived, especially in Egypt, with two important monastic
centers, one in the desert of Nitria, by the Western Bank of the Nile,
with Abba Ammoun (d. 356) as its founder, and one in the desert of Skete,
south of Nitria, with Saint Makarios of Egypt (d. ca. Egypt 330) as its
founder. These monks were anchorites, following the monastic ideal of
Saint Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common
worship on Saturdays and Sundays only.
Whereas Saint Anthony the
Great is the founder of "anchorite" monasticism, Saint Pachomios of Egypt (d. 346) is the founder of the so-called "coenobitic" (from Koinos
bios: communal life) monasticism. Pachomios started as an anchorite
himself in the Thebaid, Upper Egypt. Later in that same place, he
founded the first "monastery" in the modern sense of the term.
Saint Anthony's lavra was a village of anchorites who lived by themselves in
their own huts and had a life in common, practiced common daily prayer
evening and morning, worked in common, had common revenues and
expenditures, and common meals, and wore the same identical monastic
garb. This garb consisted of a linen tunic or robe and belt, a white
goat skin or sheep skin coat and belt, a cone-shaped head-cover or hood
(koukoulion) and a linen scarf (maforion or
pallium). At this stage, monks were identified with lay people
seeking Christian perfection. No religious ceremony was required, and no
monastic vows. Monks were prohibited from becoming clergy.
Anchorite monasticism
existed in other places besides Egypt. However, "organized monasticism,"
that is, of the "cenobitic" type, spread to Sinai, Palestine and
Syria from Egypt. Two monks from Egypt, Saint Ilarion (d. 371) and
Saint Epiphanios, later bishop of Salamis in Cyprus (d. 403), brought
organized monasticism to Palestine.
Monasticism at this time
was identified with the "charismatics" of the ancient church. This
identification of monasticism with the "enthusiastic element" in the
church led to some abuses, of which those around Eustathios of Sebastia
(d. 380) are a good example. Eustathios introduced monasticism into Asia
Minor from Egypt. His followers became overzealous; they taught that
marriage and meat-eating made salvation impossible; they were, in fact,
advocating monasticism for all Christians. The Council of Gangra (343)
condemned these over-enthusiastic practices. Another heresy that
affected monasticism during this same time was "Messalianism,"
which
appeared in Mesopotamia (c. 350 A.D.). Messalians were ascetics who
practiced poverty, celibacy and fasting. They rejected the sacramental
life of the church and pretended to see God with their physical eyes.
They spread in Syria and Asia Minor; they finally were anathematized by
the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus [431]. Under the influence of
the Messalians, the non-sleepers or Vigilant (Akoimetoi) type
of monasticism was developed in the area of Constantinople (mid-fifth
century). The most famous instance was the Studion Monastery, renowned
for its polemic against the Iconoclasts. Saint Symeon of Antioch [ca. 460]
also developed the Stylite type of monasticism, living himself on a pole
(stylos) for over 36 years.
Monasticism became a strong
movement in the life of the church. The church not only condemned
anti-church groups and tendencies within monasticism, but also guided
and directed the monastic movement to meet its own needs. One of the
ways through which this occurred was through a convergence of
monasticism and clergy: monks were now ordained in a special religious
service at which they subscribed to special monastic vows, thus becoming
a special class of Christians standing between the clergy and the laity.
This development was mostly due to the efforts of Saint Basil,
Archbishop of Caesaria in Cappadocia.
Basil the Great and the
Constitution of Orthodox Monasticism .
Eustathios of Sebastia
introduced monasticism to Asia Minor; he influenced Saint Basil, who
borrowed whatever was good in his innovations, including the monastic
garments, monastic vows, and the special religious service (tonsure)
that indicated the special status of a monk, superior to that of lay
people, and subordinate to the clergy.
Among the many ascetical
works of Saint Basil, two are the most significant in terms of regulating
the life of monasticism: the "Great Rules" (Oroi Kata Platos),
and the "Brief Rules" (Oroi Kat' Epitomen). These rules
regulate the life in the cenobitic monasteries: they extol the monastic
life in common as the ideal Christian life, the "life of perfection,"
while at the same time indicating the dangers of the solitary anchoretic
life. Saint Basil's Rules became the Magna Carta of Monasticism, both in
the East and in the West, throughout the monastic tradition. The
difference is that while in the Christian East the anchorite spirit of
Saint Anthony continues to persist as the original monastic ideal, thus at
times reacting against the organized monasticism of a Pachomian,
cenobitic type promulgated by Saint Basil in the Rules, the Christian
West, after the modifications to the Basilian Rules by Saint Benedict,
remains faithful to the cenobitic spirit of organized monasticism.
St. Basil set Christian
perfectionism as the goal of monastic life. The monks were to practice
Christian virtues together, especially love; to practice obedience to a
spiritual father; to practice chastity and poverty, and share the common
goods of the monastery. After they achieved Christian perfection, they
were allowed to come back to the world and help others to achieve
Christian perfection. Thus, the monks had the mission of "social
workers" as well. Saint Basil's institutions, especially his Basileias,
which was at the same time an orphanage, a "kitchen for the poor," and a
school for the illiterate was in practice run by monks. This was Saint Basil's way of utilizing the monastic movement to benefit the mission of
the Church in the world.
Following Saint Basil's
example, the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon (451), in its
canonical legislation, placed the monastics in a given Diocese under the
direct jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop. Only this bishop can allow
the foundation of new monasteries in his diocese (Canons 4 and 8). Thus
in the Orthodox Church the possibility of the creation of monastic
"Orders," as we see them developing in the West during the Middle Ages,
was once and for all eliminated.
Monasticism also spread in
the West. Its origins go back to Saint Athanasios of Alexandria, who was
exiled to the West (399). His Life of Saint Anthony was translated into
Latin by Evagrios of Antioch (380). Two Latin monks, Rufinus and Saint Jerome, who lived in Palestine, brought monasticism to the West when
they returned, during the second half of the 4th century. Saint Ambrose of
Milan (d. 395) introduced monasticism in Northern Italy, and Saint Augustine (d. 430) in Northern Africa, whence monasticism was
transplanted to Spain. Saint Martin of Tours (370) introduced
monasticism into Northern France (Gaul), and Saint Honoratus of Arles into the South.
Saint John Cassian founded two monasteries near Marseilles (415); he had
become acquainted with monasticism in Egypt and Palestine, and was
ordained a deacon by Saint John Chrysostom in Constantinople. At.
Saint John's deposition, John Cassian returned to Gaul to establish
monasticism there.
The Role of Monasticism in
the Byzantine and the Ottoman States.
With the development of
Monasticism during the fourth century and thereafter, many monastics
became involved with the various heresies, especially those concerning
the Christological dogma. Most of the monastics were the defenders of
the Orthodox faith. Still, Eutyches, an archimandrite from
Constantinople, headed the heresy of monophysitism. On the Orthodox
side, Saint Maximos the Confessor (c. 580-662) played an important role in
defeating the heresies of monothelitism and monoenergism. The Sixth
Ecumenical Council (680) condemned monothelitism and reestablished the
doctrine of Chalcedon. During the time of the iconoclastic controversy,
the Studite monks, led by Saint Theodore the Studite (759-826), played a
very important role. In addition to organizing his monastery, the Studion, on the basis of the cenobitic principles of
Saint Pachomios and Saint Basil, Saint Theodore also wrote his three Antirrhetics against
iconoclasm.
After the condemnation of
the iconoclasts, monasticism thrived even more. Many representatives of
the Byzantine aristocracy became monks. Monks were men of letters;
clergy received their education in the monasteries. Bishops,
metropolitans, and patriarchs were taken from their ranks; monks were
involved with the church affairs, at times for the good of the church,
at times creating trouble. Monasteries existed in almost every diocese,
with the Bishop as their head, planting a cross in their foundations.
Since 879, the right was given to the Ecumenical Patriarch of
Constantinople of planting a cross in monasteries that were under the
jurisdiction of other dioceses throughout the empire. They were called
"Patriarchal Stavropighiac Monasteries." This right exists to our days.
With the Arab conquest of
Syria, Palestine and Egypt (during the 7th century), new centers for
monasteries were sought and founded, among which were Mount Olympus in
Bithynia and the Holy Mount Athos.
During the entire Byzantine
period, the monks took an active part in the life of the Church in
general. Still, spirituality was their strength. Concerning this tension
in Christian anthropology, two schools of thought were represented; that
of Evagrios ponticus (d. 399), who followed a Platonic and Origenistic
doctrine pertaining to the "mind," thus de-emphasizing the importance of
the human body and becoming dualistic, and Saint Makarios of Egypt (or,
better, the writings attributed to him), present a more Christian,
holistic anthropology; for in this theology man is a psycho-physical
entity, and, as such, being a destined to deification. "Prayer of the
mind," in the Evagrian spirituality, becomes "prayer of the heart" in
the Macarian spirituality. The two schools of thought with the two
different anthropologies continue to find representatives throughout the
history of the Church.
Saint Symeon, the New
Theologian (949-1022), marks an important development in monastic
spirituality. A disciple of a Studite monk, he left the Studion to join
the small monastery of Saint Mamas in Constantinople, were he was ordained
a priest and became the abbot. He wrote several works, among which are
the fifty-eight hymns of "Divine Love," in which he stresses that the
Christian faith is a conscious experience of God. Saint Symeon is the
exponent of an intensive sacramental life, which leads to this personal
conscious experience, as we can see in his Hymns. In this he is a
predecessor of Hesychasm, which also shares this personal experience of
God in conjunction with intensive sacramental life.
Finally, the spirituality
of Hesychasm, as enunciated in the theology of Saint Gregory Palamas
(1296-1359), is of paramount importance not only in the life of
monasticism, but also in the life of the entire Church. An Anthonite
monk, Saint Gregory took it upon himself to defend the holy Hesychasts of
the Holy Mountain in their ways of praying and experiencing the presence
of God the "uncreated light" that they contemplated. Barlaam the
Calabrian had led the attack against the pious monks and their psycho
physical method of prayer, and accused them of "gross materialism," Messalianism, calling them "navel-souls" (omphalopsychoi) and
"navel-watchers" (omphaloskopoi).
The hesychastic method of
prayer consists of regulating one's breathing with the recitation of the
"Jesus prayer": "O Lord, Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a
sinner." The prayer is repeated constantly until it descends from the
lips and minds into one's heart. At the end of the process, the peace of
Christ is poured into the heart of the worshipper, and the light itself
of Christ shines upon him and around him. This light, as that of the
Holy Transfiguration of Christ, may also be seen by our physical eyes.
Saint Gregory established
that the experience of the Holy Hesychasts was an authentic one, for it
is similar to that of the disciples on Mount Tabor. Theologically it is
justified by the distinction between essence and energies in God, this
light being the "uncreated light," or the "uncreated energy" of God,
that "can descend toward us," whereas the essence of God "remains
unapproachable" (St. Basil).
After the fall of
Constantinople, the number of idiorrythmic monasteries continued to
grow, a fact which brought a further decline to monastic life. The 16th
century was the lowest ebb. In reaction to this problem, many of the
monks themselves, especially on the Holy Mountain, left the main
monasteries and turned to idiorrhythmic ones, establishing Sketai
(dependencies) of the main monasteries, with a more rigorous typikon
(order). Also, Patriarchs Jeremy II of Constantinople, Silvester of
Alexandria, and Sophronios of Jerusalem led the attack against
idiorrhythmic monasticism, thus managing to counteract its spread.
Cenobitic monasticism prevailed for a while, but the tide soon went in
its original direction. Many monasteries of the Holy Mountain, including
the mother monastery, the Great Lavra, became idiorrhythmic. Today an
idiorrhythmic monastery may become cenobitic but not the other way
round. Hopefully, this will guarantee that organized monastic life will
finally prevail, according to the Basilian ideal of monasticism.
Monasticism played an
important role under the Ottoman Empire, as well. The monks not only
kept the faith alive, but they also kept the Greek culture and
literature alive. Not only did the education of clergy continue at the
monasteries, but the monasteries became the "clandestine school" (Krypho
Scholeio) for all the Greeks under Turkish occupation. The monks
thus prevented the Christian nations under Turkish occupation from being
assimilated to them, and thereby became the natural leaders of national
("ethnic") resistance against the oppressors. It is no accident that the
Greek Revolution started in 1821 at a monastery in the Peloponnesos,
Aghia Lavra, with Metropolitan Germanos of Old Patras raising the
banner of revolution and blessing the arms of the Greek freedom
fighters.
The Monastic Community of
the Holy Mount Athos.
Monasticism existed on the
Mountain even before the tenth century. Many anchorites were living on
Mt. Athos, especially in the area of Ierissos. The anchorites lived in
the cells (kellia), and were organized according to the general
pattern, selecting a "leader" (protos) from among themselves to
keep a semblance of order. Some of those cells were built for many
anchorites to live in, and some of these joint habitations were called
"monasteries." Two of these were in existence on the Mount before the
tenth century: Zogrophou and Xeropotamou.
However, cenobitic
monasticism, which is considered to be the beginning of the Great
Republic of Monks on the Holy Mountain, only started in 963 when monk
Athanasios the Athonite built the cenobitic monastery of Meghisti Lavra,
with the help of the Emperor Nicephoros Phokas and the continued support
of Emperor John Tsimiskis. The community soon became a "pan-Orthodox"
community: Iberians (Georgians), Russians, Serbians, Bulgarians and
Romanians joined the Greeks to form the pan-Orthodox community, a
"Republic of Monks."
Each of the monasteries had
its own abbot; one, chosen leader as Protos, was installed by the
emperor himself. Following the example of Lavra, which was given an
autonomous status, all the monasteries were considered royal
monasteries, without any ecclesiastical dependence. This was changed by
Emperor Alexios Comnenos (1081-1118), who gave the Patriarch the right
to supervise the monasteries (Novella 37); all the monasteries thus
became "Stavropighiac" and
Patriarchal. The
Patriarch appointed the Bishop of
Ierissos to be his representative at the Holy Mountain.
The multiplication of
idiorrythmic monasteries under the Turkish occupation affected the Holy
Mountain; they dismissed their abbots and even the Protos in the course
of the seventeenth century. The abbot was replaced by two or three
"trustees" chosen yearly by the monks; the Protos was replaced by four
supervisors (Epistatai) who changed every year. One of them
chosen as chief supervisor (Protepistatis), as a "first among
equals." The Republic, consisting of twenty monasteries, is still
represented in the Synaxis by as many representatives that meet twice a
year, or as necessary. The representative of Lavra presides over the
Synaxis. This typikon, established in 1783 by Patriarch Gabriel
IV of Constantinople, still regulates the life of the Anthonite republic
of monks.
Orthodox Monasticism
Today.
With the conversion of the
Slavs in the ninth and tenth century, monasticism spread to the Slavic
countries as well, where it continues to thrive up to our day, in spite
of communist oppression. Important monasteries in Russia - Zagorsk,
Optimo, and Valamo - continue the hesychastic tradition. Great monks and
spiritual fathers were exponents of this tradition, including Saint Nilus
(1433 1508), Saint Seraphim of Sarov (1759-1833), and Father John of
Kronstadt (1829-1908), a married priest. Monasticism thrives today in
Romania, Serbia, and even Bulgaria.
On the Holy Mountain
itself, there is an impressive monastic renewal: several monasteries,
inactive in the recent past, were recently populated by young, educated,
enthusiastic monks, who give new life and a new spirituality, more in
conformity with that of Saint Basil, to the Holy Mountain. The monastery
of Stavronikita is an example. Under the guidance of important spiritual
fathers on the Holy Mountain today - among them ore Father Ephraim,
abbot of Philotheou; Father Aimilianos, abbot of Simonos Petra; and
abbot Vassilios of Stavronikita - monasticism is thriving on the Holy
Mountain, both spiritually and intellectually. The pattern of cenobitic
life prevails at present, and continues to gain ground.
Spiritual fathers from the
Holy Mountain visit the States, including Holy Cross Theological School.
Interest has been generated among young men and women who aspire to
monastic life and wish to see its tradition flourish in America. The
Saint Gregory Palamas Monastery in Hayesville, Ohio
under the
Greek Orthodox Diocese of Pittsburgh,
has this potential.
In our day, there is a
monastic renewal, as a reaction to the materialist spirit in our
society, in almost every Orthodox land. Longovarda Monastery, Nea Makri,
and Saint John's Monastery on Patmos are some of the active monasteries in
Greece outside Mount Athos. As for the States, the major Holy Places,
monasteries and shrines connected with them, are under the jurisdiction
of the Synodal Church outside Russia. Among these monasteries are: Saint
Tikhon's, near South Canaan, Pennsylvania (OCA);
Novo-Diveyevo convent, near Spring Valley, New York; Holy
Transfiguration Monastery and Convent in Boston, Convent of the Vladimir
Mother of God, San Francisco, California, Holy Dormition Monastery,
Northville, Alberta, New Skete Monastery, near Cambridge, New York and
Holy Annunciation Monastery (Carpatho Russian Diocese), Tuxedo Park, New
York.
